Students' Subjective Well-Being in Cape Coast Metropolis, Ghana: The Influence of Sex, Parenting Style, and Self-Esteem

Eric Mensah; Bernice Otabil; Evelyn Mensah

doi:10.51867/scimundi.4.2.12

Authors

Eric Mensah University of Cape Coast, Ghana https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2362-8493
Bernice Otabil University of Cape Coast, Ghana https://orcid.org/0009-0007-9170-1505
Evelyn Mensah University of Cape Coast, Ghana https://orcid.org/0009-0002-6423-4837

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.51867/scimundi.4.2.12

Keywords:

Parenting Style, Sex, Self-Esteem, Subjective Wellbeing, Students

Abstract

This study sought to determine senior high school students’ level of self-esteem (SE) and subjective well-being (SWB), establish the influence of their sex and parents’ parenting style on their SWB, and determine the effect of their SE on their SWB. The cross-sectional survey research design was used. The study was guided by Life circumstances theory (LCT). Final year senior high school students formed the population. Data was collected from 347 senior high school students drawn from a population of 7,665 in Cape Coast with a questionnaire. The spread of the students and their dispositions led to the use of the proportionate simple random sampling technique to select 347 students from the 10 senior high schools in the metropolis. The instrument used to collect data for this study was a questionnaire. Descriptive (means and standard deviation) and inferential statistics like Independent samples t-test, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and PLS-SEM were utilised to analyse the responses. Results indicated students’ SE and SWB levels were high. Further, there was no statistically significant difference in students’ SWB with regard to their sex. There were statistically significant differences in students’ SWB levels with regard to their parents’ parenting styles. Results of the study further indicated that senior high school students’ SE significantly and positively predicts their SWB. It is concluded that even though SE is not the sole determinant of SWB, senior high school students will enjoy their learning, feel part of and connected to their school, have a high purpose of learning, and feel highly efficacious academically (SWB). It was recommended that senior high school authorities in Ghana put in place policies and strategies that will sustain the high levels of SE and SWB. This is very important for the realisation of SDG goals 3 and 4, which are critical for the total development, and well-being of students.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Acosta-Gonzaga, E. (2023). The effects of self-esteem and academic engagement on university students' performance. Behaviour Science (Basel), 13(4), 348. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13040348 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13040348

Adam, A. M. (2020). Sample size determination in survey research. Journal of Scientific Research and Reports, 26(5), 90-97.

https://doi.org/10.9734/jsrr/2020/v26i530263 DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/jsrr/2020/v26i530263

Adams, T. B., Bezner, J. R., Drabbs, M. E., Zambarano, R. J., & Steinhardt, M. A. (2000). Conceptualization and Measurement of the Spiritual and Psychological Dimensions of Wellness in a College Population. Journal of American College Health, 48(4), 165-173.

https://doi.org/10.1080/07448480009595692

Agnew, R. (2006). Pressured into crime: An overview of general strain theory. Oxford University Press.

Agormedah, E. K., Ankomah, F., Srem-Sai, M., Nugba, R. M., Quansah, F., Hagan Junior, J. E., Okan, O., Dadaczynski, K., & Schack, T. (2024). Effects of gender and age interaction on sense of coherence and subjective well-being of senior high school students in Northern Ghana. Education Sciences, 14(2), 178. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci140200178 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14020178

Akaboha, A.A., & Kwofie, S. (2016). Students' performance in Ghana: A discriminant analysis International Journal of Business and Social Research, 6(9), 62-74. https://doi.org/10.18533/ijbsr.v6i10.966 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18533/ijbsr.v6i10.966

Allin, P., & Hand, D. J. (2017). New statistics for old?-measuring the well-being of the UK. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 180(1) 3-43. https://doi.org/10.1111/rssa.12188 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/rssa.12188

Apriliya, F., & Hastuti, D. (2023). The influence of parenting style and adolescent-parent interaction on the subjective well-being of adolescents during the covid-19 pandemic. Journal of Child, Family, and Consumer Studies, 2(3), 200-208. https://doi.org/10.29244/jcfcs.2.3.200-208 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29244/jcfcs.2.3.200-208

Arshad, M., Zaidi, S. M. I. H., & Mahmood, K. (2015). Self-Esteem & academic performance among University students. Journal of Education and Practice, 6 (1), 156-162.

Bandura, A. (2013). Self-Efficacy: The Foundation of Agency1. In Control of human behaviour, mental processes, and consciousness (1st ed.). Psychology Press.

Baumrind, D. (1968). Authoritarian vs. authoritative parental control. Adolescence, 3(11), 255.

Baumrind, D. (1991). The Influence of Parenting Style on Adolescent Competence and Substance Use. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 11(1), 56-95. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431691111004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431691111004

Bettencourt, B. A., & Dorr, N. (1997). Collective self-esteem as a mediator of the relationship between allocentric and subjective well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(9), 955-964. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297239005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297239005

Blascovich, J., Tomaka, J., Robinson, J. P., Shaver, P. R., & Wrightsman, L. S. (1991). Measures of self-esteem. Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Attitudes, 1(2), 115-160. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-590241-0.50008-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-590241-0.50008-3

Bong, M., & Clark, R. E. (1999). Comparison between self-concept and self-efficacy in academic motivation research. Educational psychologist, 34(3), 139-153. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3403_1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3403_1

Bruner, J. S. (1966). "Toward a Theory of Instruction." Harvard University Press.

Buhner, N. Y., Rogozina, I. V., Tsyganenko, N. V., Tiskova, O. V.,& Bespalova, N. N. (2022). Relationship between gender and subjective well-being: survey of married couples SHS Web of Conferences 134, 00128. https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202213400128 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202213400128

Butt, F. (2009). Subjective well-being and self-esteem of post-graduate students in Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 7(1) 45-53.

Chin, W. W. (1998). The partial least squares approach to structural equation modelling. Modern Methods for Business Research, 295(2), 295-336.

Clark, M., Amar-Singh, H., & Hashim, L. (2014). The subjective well-being of Malaysian school children: Grade level, gender and ethnicity. Psychology, 5, 1453-1462. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2014.512156. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2014.512156

Collier, J. (2020). Applied structural equation modelling using AMOS: Basic to advanced techniques. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003018414 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003018414

Crocker, J., & Wolfe, C. T. (2001). Contingencies of self-worth. Psychological Review, 108(3), 593. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.108.3.593 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295X.108.3.593

Čudina-Obradović, M., & Obradović, J. (2006). Conceptualization and measurement of the spiritual and psychological dimensions of wellness in a college population. Journal of American College Health, 48(4), 165-173. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448480009595692 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07448480009595692

Dewey, J. (1897). The psychology of effort. The Philosophical Review, 6(1), 43-56. https://doi.org/10.2307/2175586 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2175586

Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological bulletin, 95(3), 542. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.95.3.542 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.95.3.542

Diener, E., & Diener, C. (1996). Most people are happy. Psychological Science, 7(3), 181-185. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00354.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00354.x

Diener, E., Lucas, R. E., & Oishi, S. (2002). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and life satisfaction. Handbook of Positive Psychology, 2, 63-73. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195135336.003.0005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195135336.003.0005

Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Review of Psychology, 54(1), 403-425. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145056 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145056

Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125(2), 276. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.2.276 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.125.2.276

Donald, W. E, & Jackson, D. (2022). Subjective wellbeing among university students and recent graduates: Evidence from the United Kingdom. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(11), 6911. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19116911 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19116911

Du, H., King, R. B., & Chi, P. (2017). Self-esteem and subjective well-being revisited: The roles of personal, relational, and collective self-esteem. PloS One, 12(8), e0183958. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0183958 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0183958

Durbin, D. L., Darling, N., Steinberg, L., & Brown, B. B. (1993). Parenting style and peer group membership among European-American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 3(1), 87-100. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327795jra0301_5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327795jra0301_5

Esteban-Gonzalo, S., Esteban-Gonzalo, L., Cabanas-Sánchez, V., Miret, M., & Veiga, O. L. (2020). The investigation of gender differences in subjective wellbeing in children and adolescents: The UP&DOWN study. International journal of environmental research and public health, 17(8), 2732. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17082732 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17082732

Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and Statistics. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 382-388. https://doi.org/10.2307/3150980 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800313

Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.56.3.218

Hair Jr, J. F., Sarstedt, M., Hopkins, L., & Kuppelwieser, V. G. (2014). Partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM): An emerging tool in business research. European Business Review, 26(2), 106-121. https://doi.org/10.1108/EBR-10-2013-0128 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/EBR-10-2013-0128

Hair, J. F., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2013). Partial least squares structural equation modelling: Rigorous applications, better results, and higher acceptance. Long Range Planning, 46(1-2), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.2013.01.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.2013.01.001

Hair, J.F., Hult, G.T.M., Ringle, C.M. and Sarstedt, M. (2017). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) (2nd ed.). Sage Publications Inc.

Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modelling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43(1), 115-135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8

Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sinkovics, R. R. (2009). The use of partial least squares path modelling in international marketing. In R. R. Sinkovics and P. N. Ghauri (eds.), New challenges to international marketing (Vol. 20, pp. 277-319). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

https://doi.org/10.1108/S1474-7979(2009)0000020014 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/S1474-7979(2009)0000020014

Hill, P.L. (2015). Purpose in life as a predictor of psychological and physical health in community-dwelling older adults. Journal of Health Psychology, 20(9), 1137-1145.

Huang, H., Tang, H., Lu, G., Chen, C., Peng, Q., Zhang, Y., Liang, Y., Wan, X., & Ding, Y. (2022). Perceived parenting style and subjective well-being among Chinese nursing undergraduates: The role of self-efficacy and gender. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 19(19), 12654. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912654 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912654

Huebner, E. S. (1991). Initial development of the student's life satisfaction scale. School Psychology International, 12, 231-240.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034391123010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034391123010

Huppert, F. A. (2009). Psychological well‐being: Evidence regarding its causes and consequences. Applied psychology: health and well‐being, 1(2), 137-164. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-0854.2009.01008.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-0854.2009.01008.x

Joshi, U. (2010). Subjective well-being by gender. Journal of Economics and Behavioural Studies, 1(1), 20-26.

https://doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v1i1.211 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v1i1.211

Kahneman, D., Diener, E., & Schwarz, N. (Eds.). (1999). Well-being: Foundations of hedonic International Journal of Psychology, 40(3), 189-200.

Kang, J. (2023). The relationship between parenting style and subjective well-being: The intermediary role of core self-evaluation: Take undergraduates at Zhejiang University as an example. International Journal of Education and Humanities, 11(2), 74-78. https://doi.org/10.54097/ijeh.v11i2.13536 DOI: https://doi.org/10.54097/ijeh.v11i2.13536

Kariuki, M. N., Ogolla, F., & Kimani, M. (2019). Influence of self-esteem on students' academic performance in secondary schools in Tharaka Nithi County, Kenya. Journal of Education and Practice, 10, (2), 147-160

Katsantonis, I., McLellan, R., & Marquez, J. (2022). Development of subjective well-being and its relationship with self-esteem in early adolescence. British Journal of Development Psychology, 41(2), 157-171 https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12436 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12436

Kock, N. (2015). Common method bias in PLS-SEM: A full collinearity assessment approach. International Journal of e-Collaboration (IJEC), 11(4), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4018/ijec.2015070101 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4018/ijec.2015100101

Lane, J., Lane, A. M., & Kyprianou, A. (2004). Self-efficacy, self-esteem and their impact on academic performance. Social Behaviour and Personality: an international journal, 32(3), 247-256. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2004.32.3.247 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2004.32.3.247

Liao, T., Yin, Y., Hu, X., Tang, S., & Shim, Y. (2023). The relationship between physical activity and subjective well-being in Chinese university students: the mediating roles of perceived health, social support, and self-esteem. Front Sports Act Living, 5, 1280404.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2023.1280404 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2023.1280404

Lokeshwari, R., & Monika, C. (2021). A study of subjective well-being on gender. Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research (JETIR), 8(1), 536-540

Luo, X. (2023). Effects of social anxiety and subjective well-being on problematic mobile social media use in first-year University students: The mediating role of self-esteem. Psychological Reports, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941231190326 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941231190326

Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K. M., & Schkade, D. (2005). Pursuing happiness: The architecture of sustainable change. Review of general psychology, 9(2), 111-131. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.111 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.111

Maddux, J. E. (2017). Subjective well-being and life satisfaction: An introduction to conceptions, theories, and measures. In Subjective well-being and life satisfaction (pp. 3-31). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351231879-1, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351231879 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351231879-1

Mahasneh, A. M (2022). The Relationship between subjective well-being and social support among Jordanian university students. Psychol Russ, 15(2), 53-64. https://doi.org/10.11621/pir.2022.0204 DOI: https://doi.org/10.11621/pir.2022.0204

Maluka, C. S. (2004). Subjective well-being and self-esteem in a disadvantaged community (Doctoral Dissertation, University of South Africa).

Manuel, A. M., & Asuquo, N. (2021). Relationship between parenting styles and subjective well-being of undergraduate youths in the University of Port Harcourt. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(12), 599-610. https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.712.9279 DOI: https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.712.9279

Martin, C. A., & Colbert, K. K. (1997). Parenting: a life span perspective. McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Martin, C. L., & Maccoby, E. E. (1983). Patterns of Gender Development. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol. 4. Socialization, Personality, and Social Development (4th ed., pp. 385-476). Wiley.

Martínez‐Marín, M. D., & Martínez, C. (2019). Subjective well‐being and gender‐typed attributes in adolescents: The relevance of emotional intelligence. Australian Journal of Psychology, 71(3), 296-304. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajpy.12247 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ajpy.12247

McNeely, C. A., Nonnemaker, J. M., & Blum, R. W. (2002). Promoting school connectedness: Evidence from the national longitudinal study of adolescent health. Journal of School Health, 72(4), 138-146. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2002.tb06533.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2002.tb06533.x

Mensah, E., & Owusu, M. (2022). Teachers' curriculum knowledge in teaching Christian religious studies among senior high schools of the Greater Accra region of Ghana. East African Journal of Education and Social Sciences 3, (4), 126-133. https://doi.org/10.4314/eajess.v3i4.204 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/eajess.v3i4.204

Misbach, I. H., Maslihah, S., & Rusli, I. M. (2023). The Influence of Social Support and Self-esteem on Subjective Well-being of High School Students in Bandung City. Indonesian Psychological Research, 5(1), 15-32. https://doi.org/10.29080/ipr.v5i1.881 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29080/ipr.v5i1.881

Mishra, J., & Sethi, S. (2023). Relationship between parenting styles, anxiety, and subjective well-being among college-going students. International Journal of Indian Psychology, 11(3), 804-814. https://doi.org/10.25215/1103.077

Mpiani, G. O. (2012 Factors affecting academic performance of pupils in basic schools in Asawasi Sub Metro in the Ashanti Region of Ghana (Master's thesis, University of Cape Coast, Ghana). http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/2753

Mpiani, G. O. (2012). Factors affecting academic performance of pupils in basic schools in Asawasi Sub Metro in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/2753

Opoku, B. E., Oti-Boateng, S., & Amoako, I. (2021). Classroom support and subjective well-being among colleges of education students. International Journal of Research in Education Humanities and Commerce, 2(2), 52-62.

Özdoğan, A. Ç. (2021). Subjective well-being and social-emotional loneliness of university students: The mediating effect of the meaning of life. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 5(1), 18-30. http://dx.doi.org/10.33902/JPR.2021066865 DOI: https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.2021066865

Padhy, M., Rana, S., & Mishra, M. (2011). Self-esteem and subjective wellbeing: Correlates of academic achievement of students. Research Journal of Social Science & Management, 1(7), 148-156.

Pajares, F. (1997). Current directions in self-efficacy research. Advances in motivation and achievement, 10(149), 1-49.

Pavićević, M. (2020). Personality traits and educational styles of parents as predictors of self-efficacy, subjective well-being, and psychopathic tendencies of adolescents (Thesis, University of Niš, Serbia).

Pavicevic, M. S., & Zivkovic, T. L. (2021). Parenting styles as predictors of adolescents' self-efficacy and subjective well-being. The New Educational Review, 65(1), 29-39. Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek. https://doi.org/10.15804/tner.2021.65.1.02 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15804/tner.21.65.3.02

Pekrun, R., Elliot, A. J., & Maier, M. A. (2009). Achievement goals and achievement emotions: Testing a model of their joint relations with academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(1), 115. Psychology International, 12(3), 231-240. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013383 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013383

Ratelle, C., Simard, K., & Guay, F. (2013). University students' subjective well-being: the role of autonomy support from parents, friends, and the romantic partner. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14(1), 893-910. 10.1007/s10902-012-9360-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9360-4

Renshaw, T. L. (2015). A replication of the technical adequacy of the student subjective wellbeing questionnaire. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 33(8), 757-768. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282915580885 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282915580885

Resnick, M. D., Bearman, P. S., Blum, R. W., Bauman, K. E., Harris, K. M., Jones, J., Tabor, J., Beuhring, T., Sieving, R. E., Shew, M., Ireland, M., Bearinger, L. H., & Udry, J. R. (1997). Protecting adolescents from harm. Findings from the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health. JAMA, 278(10), 823-832. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.278.10.823 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1997.03550100049038

Reyes, M. F., Satorres, E., & Melendez, J. C. (2020). Resilience and socioeconomic status as predictors of life satisfaction and psychological well-being in Colombian older adults. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 39(3), 269-276. https://doi.org/10.1177/0733464819867554 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0733464819867554

Robins, R. W., Hendin, H. M., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2001). Measuring global self-esteem: Construct validation of a single-item measure and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(2), 151-161. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201272002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201272002

Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the self. New York: Basic Books.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American psychologist, 55(1), 68. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.68

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual review of psychology, 52(1), 141-166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141

Ryan, R. M., & Frederick, C. (1997). On energy, personality, and health: Subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well‐being. Journal of Personality, 65(3), 529-565. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1997.tb00326.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1997.tb00326.x

Salmela-Aro, K., & Tuominen-Soini, H. (2010). Adolescents’ life satisfaction during the transition to post-comprehensive education: Antecedents and consequences. Journal of Happiness Studies: An Interdisciplinary Forum on Subjective Well-Being, 11(6), 683–701. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-009-9156-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-009-9156-3

Senik, C., & Clark, A. E. (2015). "What matters to job satisfaction and does it differ between men and women? Evidence from the British Household Panel Survey." Labour Economics, 32, 1-12.

Sharma, G., & Yukhymenko-Lescroart, M. (2023). High school students' subjective well-being: The role of life purpose and academic identity. Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies in Education, 12(1), 1-22.

Simsek, O. F. (2013). Structural relations of personal and collective self-esteem to subjective well-being: Attachment as moderator. Social Indicators Research, 110, 219-236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9927-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9927-1

Smith, K. (2018). Secondary students' self-perceptions of school climate and subjective well-being: Invitational education meets positive psychology. Journal of Invitational Theory and Practice, 24, 45-71. https://doi.org/10.26522/jitp.v24i.3488 DOI: https://doi.org/10.26522/jitp.v24i.3488

Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S., & Kaler, M. (2006). The meaning in life questionnaire: assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 53(1), 80. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.80 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.80

Suldo, S., Thalji, A., & Ferron, J. (2011). Longitudinal academic outcomes predicted by early adolescents' subjective well-being, psychopathology, and mental health status yielded from a dual-factor model. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 6(1), 17-30.

https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2010.536774 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2010.536774

Tan, Q., Zhu, N., Zhang, L., & Kong, F. (2023). Disentangling the relations between self-esteem and subjective well-being in emerging adults: A two-wave longitudinal study. Journal of Happiness Studies, 24(7), 2177-2199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-023-00675-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-023-00675-x

Tian, L., Tian, Q., & Huebner, E. S. (2016). School-related social support and adolescents' school-related subjective well-being: The mediating role of basic psychological needs satisfaction at school. Social Indicators Research, 128, 105-129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-015-1021-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-015-1021-7

Vinzi, V. E., Chin, W. W., Henseler, J., & Wang, H. (2010). Handbook of partial least squares: Concepts. Springer Science & Business Media: Methods and Applications. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-32827-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-32827-8

Wang, M. T., & Eccles, J. S. (2012). Social support matters: Longitudinal effects of social support on three dimensions of school engagement from middle to high school. Child development, 83(3), 877-895. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01745.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01745.x

Waterman, A. S. (1993). Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment. Journal of personality and social psychology, 64(4), 678. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.64.4.678 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.64.4.678

Xie, Q., Fan, W., Wong, P., & Cheung, F. M. (2016). Personality and parenting style as predictors of life satisfaction among Chinese secondary students. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 25, 423-432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-015-0271-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-015-0271-0

Yang, Q., Tian, L., Huebner, E. S., & Zhu, X. (2019). Relations among academic achievement, self-esteem, and subjective well-being in school among elementary school students: A longitudinal mediation model. School psychology (Washington, D.C.), 34(3), 328-340. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000292 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000292

Zhang, L. (2005). Prediction of Chinese life satisfaction: Contribution of collective self‐esteem. International Journal of Psychology, 40(3), 189-200. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590444000285 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590444000285

Zhao, Y., Zheng, Z., Pan, C., & Zhou, L. (2021). Self-Esteem and academic engagement among adolescents: A moderated mediation model. Frontiers in psychology, 12, 690828. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.690828 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.690828