SCIENCE MUNDI (Multidisciplinary Universal Nucleus for Dissemination of Innovation and Research in the Sciences), is a dynamic and diverse peer-reviewed journal at the forefront of scientific inquiry. A journal under AJER Publishing, our mission is to expedite the dissemination of groundbreaking research across a wide spectrum of social, pure, and applied science disciplines. We pride ourselves on upholding the highest standards of academic rigor, with all submissions rigorously evaluated through a double-blind peer review process. Accepted articles are promptly published under an open-access model, ensuring that the fruits of scholarly exploration are accessible to all. Our criteria for publication include a demonstration of originality, a solid scientific foundation, and relevance to the existing body of literature. At Science Mundi, we have an ongoing commitment to the global scientific community. We invite submissions on a rolling basis, with accepted manuscripts featured in our current biannual issue. Our publication format is exclusively electronic, available in PDF form. Each published work is furnished with a unique Document Object Identifier (DOI) for easy citation and retrieval. Furthermore, we take pride in ensuring that our content is promptly indexed for maximal visibility and accessibility.
Comparative analysis of generalized least squares and generalized inverse regression models for predicting neonatal birth weight using maternal anthropometric measures
This research presents a comparative analysis of two advanced statistical methodologies for predicting neonatal birth weight using maternal anthropometric measures. We developed and evaluated both Generalized Least Squares (GLS) and Generalized Inverse Regression (GIR) models to account for complex error structures and measurement uncertainties inherent in obstetric data. Data were collected from 150 mothers delivering full-term, singleton infants at a regional hospital, recording maternal weight, abdominal circumference, and neonatal birth weight. The GLS approach addressed correlated errors through covariance matrix transformation, while the GIR model incorporated measurement error adjustments using Stein estimation techniques. Both models demonstrated strong predictive capabilities, with the GLS model achieving slightly better accuracy (R² = 0.78, MAE = 0.15 kg) compared to the GIR model (R² = 0.75, MAE = 0.18 kg). However, the GIR model showed superior robustness in handling measurement errors. The study concludes that both methodologies offer valuable approaches for birth weight prediction, with GLS preferred for optimal accuracy and GIR preferred for enhanced robustness in settings with significant measurement uncertainties.
Copyright (c) 2025 Stephen Waswa, Kennedy Nyongesa, Colleta Akinyi, Michael Onyango Ojiema, Frankline Tireito https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Teacher performance contracting and student outcomes: An analysis of the comprehensive learning environment in public primary schools in Kakamega County, Kenya
The pursuit of quality education is a global imperative, leading governments to adopt various performance management systems within the public sector. The Teachers Service Commission (TSC) in Kenya put the Performance Contract (PC) policy into effect in 2012 through the Teacher Performance Appraisal and Development (TPAD) tool. This was done to improve teacher performance and accountability. A key component of this framework is the creation of a Comprehensive Learning Environment (CLE), aimed at fostering child-friendly schools. However, over a decade after its implementation, empirical evidence remains scarce and inconclusive regarding the direct impact of teacher achievement in this specific PC target on tangible pupil learning outcomes. This study investigated the effect of teachers' achievement in the PC target for the comprehensive learning environment on three critical pupils’ learning outcomes—academic achievement (measured by KCPE scores), retention rates, and completion rates—in public primary schools in Kakamega County. This research is based on the tenets of New Public Management (NPM) theory. A correlation research design with a concurrent mixed-methods approach was employed. Through multistage random sampling, 82 schools were selected from the county's 13 sub-counties. Quantitative data were collected via structured questionnaires from head teachers and teachers, covering the six-year period from 2018 to 2023. This evidence was supplemented by qualitative data from in-depth interviews with five key informants, including TSC officials and curriculum support officers. Quantitative data were analyzed using Pearson's correlation and multiple linear regression, while thematic analysis was applied to qualitative data. The results revealed weak and statistically non-significant associations between comprehensive learning environment target achievement and KCPE performance (r=0.295; p=0.540), retention rates (r=0.630; p=0.180), and completion rates (r=0.326; p=0.528). Subsequent regression models confirmed that the CLE target was not a significant predictor of any of the learning outcomes (p>0.05), explaining only a minimal portion of their variance. Qualitative insights indicated that the PC appraisal process was frequently regarded as a bureaucratic formality, with significant resource limitations, teacher shortages, excessive workloads, and the constraints of the TPAD tool recognized as principal obstacles to achieving an effective learning environment. The study concludes that, within the context of Kakamega County's public primary schools, teacher achievement in the comprehensive learning environment performance target, as currently implemented and measured, has no statistically significant effect on pupil learning outcomes. The study strongly recommends that the government and the TSC move beyond policy formulation to ensure the adequate provision of physical, financial, and human resources necessary for the effective implementation of the CLE. The study also advises a critical review of the TPAD tool to make it more holistic, context-sensitive, and practical. Future research should explore the effect of this target on broader learning outcomes such as pupils' communication skills, creativity, problem-solving, and critical thinking abilities.
Copyright (c) 2025 Caroleen Murunga Saya, Achoka Judith, Nganyi Jason https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Effect of cyclone orientation on the collection efficiency of a hybrid cyclone for fly ash reduction in Kenyan sugar industries
The sugar industry in Kenya continues to grapple with significant air pollution challenges due to the release of particulate fly ash from bagasse-fired boilers. Existing single-stage cyclone separators exhibit limited efficiency in capturing fine particles, prompting the need for improved dust collection technologies. This study investigates the impact of cyclone orientation—specifically series versus parallel configuration—on the collection efficiency of a hybrid cyclone system. Using a combination of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations and physical experiments, the study evaluates gas flow behavior, pressure differentials, and particulate capture performance under varying orientation setups. Results indicate that the series configuration significantly enhances particulate collection, achieving efficiency levels between 81.26% and 81.95%, compared to only 30.6% for the parallel setup. The superior performance of the series orientation is attributed to improved pressure gradients, stable vortex flow, and reduced thermal instability, which collectively enhance fine particle capture. The findings offer actionable insights into optimizing cyclone layout for sugar mill operations and contribute to the design of more effective air pollution control systems in biomass combustion environments.
Copyright (c) 2025 Joseph Otieno Odoro, Emmanuel Ebinga Osore, Joel Kipruto Chirchir https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Determination of water flow rate for the optimal biogas purification using water scrubbing technology at ambient temperature (23 0C)
Biogas has been proven to be a sustainable substitute for fossil fuel-based energy systems. It comprises mainly of CH4, CO2, H2S, and water vapour. Biogas purification is crucial for making the gas suitable for various applications in the renewable energy sector. Water scrubbing has been widely used for enriching the methane percentage. Determining the optimal water flow rate in biogas scrubbing is crucial for enhancing methane content and reducing carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide impurities. Various studies have identified specific water flow rates that maximize efficiency in different scrubbing systems. This study focused on determining the water flow rate (WFR) required for the optimal biogas purification using water scrubbing technology. The study applied Response Surface Methodology (RSM), specifically Central Composite Design (CCD) in the design of the experiment (DoE) to optimize the water flow rate (WFR). WFR was varied at the rates of 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, and 5.5 litres per hour (l/hr). The study used Design Expert software version 13 in the analysis of results. This study found that the highest methane enrichment of 91.45% was attained at the WFR of 5.0 litres per hour.
Copyright (c) 2025 Conrad S. Mutobera, Barasa H. Masinde, Emmanuel E. Osore https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
A pragmatic analysis of the discursive strategies used in Mwalimu Andrew's staffroom diary texts
The Staffroom Diary by Mwalimu Andrew is a satirical and humorous text featured in the Sunday Nation that provides readers with insights into the experiences, observations, and contemplations of a fictional teacher persona. Its popularity as a lighthearted commentary has greatly aided in the exposure of serious and diverse issues through language. This paper analyzes the discursive strategies utilized in Mwalimu Andrew's Staffroom Diary texts. The study employed Critical Discourse Analysis theory (CDA) by Fairclough. The study adopted a qualitative research approach and employed a descriptive textual analysis design to examine linguistic and discursive features in Mwalimu Andrew’s Staffroom Diary texts. Systematic sampling was used to select the first column every month for a period of one year (2023). The findings indicated that Mwalimu Andrew utilizes discursive strategies, including referential nomination, argumentation, predication, perspectivation, and intensification, to clarify social roles and power dynamics among characters in the school context. The study established that writers use discursive strategies to shape readers’ and audiences’ perceptions of social roles. These strategies do more than entertain; they communicate and reinforce social realities, establish group identities, and celebrate leadership. This implies that speakers and writers should be cognizant of the fact that their language choices and repertoires of varieties in language use, while communicating diverse realities, can reinforce or challenge existing social hierarchies and cultural norms.
Copyright (c) 2025 Adamba Lucy Lumosi, Atichi Reginald Alati, Lucy Mandilla https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Sacred verses screen: Can religiosity buffer digital distress and delay discounting?
This study explored the influence of digital distress (DD) on the delay discounting task (DDT) among religious studies students and examined whether religiosity (RE) could moderate their choices when stress is high at the University of Cape Coast. It ultimately explored the level of DD, RE, and DDT. Also, it sought to establish the correlation and the effect of DD and DDT, as well as the moderating effect of RE on DD. Self-Control Theory and the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping underpinned the study. Using a quantitative, cross-sectional design, researchers gathered data from 120 university students, relying on standardized tools to measure DD, DDT, and RE. This was done with the use of census population. Data was analysed descriptively using frequencies, means and standard deviations, as well as Pearson correlation, a simple linear regression and hierarchical multiple regression with moderation analysis. Participants showed a moderate level of DD, a high level of RE, and a moderate level of DDT. Pearson’s correlation showed a clear positive link between DD and DDT. A simple linear regression showed that DD was a strong predictor of DDT, explaining 19.5% of the variance. Moderated regression analysis indicated that RE significantly affected the relationship between DD and DDT, with the comprehensive model explaining 24.8% of the variance. Instead of easing the strain, RE actually heightened the impact of DD on DDT. The study urges the Ministry of Education, regulators, university leaders, faith groups, mental health experts, and student representatives to work together on a National Digital Wellness Framework, one that sets clear policies, builds mental health facilities, creates quiet tech-free corners, tracks distress, offers faith-based and peer support, and provides culturally sensitive counselling, all aimed at easing digital strain and encouraging healthy tech use in Ghana’s universities.
Copyright (c) 2025 Emmanuel Frimpong Asante, Bless Yaw Adu, Isaac woode https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Beyond appraisals: An analysis of training needs identification for TVET master trainers in Uganda
Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is essential for developing a skilled workforce in Uganda, with the effectiveness of trainers hinging on accurately identified and addressed professional development needs. This study analyzed the strategies used to identify the training needs of TVET trainers of trainers in Uganda and their influence on professional competences. This study was grounded in the Experiential Learning Theory (ELT). A convergent parallel mixed-methods research design within a descriptive framework was employed, collecting data via questionnaires, interviews, and document analysis from 166 master trainers, administrators, trainees, and policymakers, achieving an 87.5% response rate. The findings reveal that while performance appraisals are the primary tool for identifying needs, their application is inconsistent, and their effectiveness is limited by weak follow-up and resource constraints. Student feedback and industry engagement are recognized but remain largely informal and underutilized, and skills audits are rare. A significant positive correlation was found between the effectiveness of needs identification strategies and trainer competences (r = 0.480). Regression analysis confirmed that these strategies explain 23.0% of the variance in professional competences (R² = 0.230). The study concludes that Uganda's TVET institutions require more structured, competency-focused, and systematically applied approaches to training needs identification. It recommends the co-design of individualized CPD plans with trainers, institutionalization of student feedback mechanisms, sustainable funding, and robust monitoring and evaluation frameworks to enhance trainer competences and align professional development with labor market demands.
Copyright (c) 2025 Sempala Sabastian, Ochieng’ Richard, Kitainge Kisilu https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Integrating blockchain technology in financial auditing: A review of transparency, audit efficiency, and skill gap—a case study of Tanzania Breweries Limited
This research investigates the implications of blockchain technology for financial audit at Tanzania Breweries Limited (TBL). With dramatic movements towards digitalization and technological advancements, there has been increased concern about data security, credit and financial information, and the need for cybersecurity, as well as for efficiency and integrity in auditing practices. Following this shift in the financial and accounting sector, blockchain presents an opportunity to enhance the transparency, efficiency, and integrity of data in auditing practice, thereby promoting investor confidence and ensuring the sustainability of the business organization. Researchers used purposive sampling to arrive at a sample of 150 respondents selected from a total population of 1231 employees working at TBL. Data was collected by questionnaires and analyzed through descriptive analysis with the aid of SPSS. Using a quantitative research methods approach, this study assesses the effect of blockchain on audit efficiency through enhanced transparency and improved efficacy and highlights a skill gap for its effectiveness. This study was based on the Technological Acceptance Model and the Diffusion of Innovations Theory. Findings reveal a statistically significant relationship between blockchain adoption and audit efficiency. However, most auditors in developing nations face a critical skills gap that hinders the full potential of blockchain audit. The study concludes that while blockchain holds transformative potential, its successful implementation requires robust training, governance, a sound regulatory framework, and a strategic partnership with leading fintech companies.
Copyright (c) 2025 Martha Edward Makatha, Modest Paul Assenga https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
A semantic and etymological analysis of lukabaras borrowed forms of toponyms: Tracing meaning through language contact
Despite the prevalence of borrowed forms of toponyms in Lukabaras, there is little scholarly attention paid to how these toponyms acquire meaning and cultural significance through language contact. This study analysed toponyms in Lukabaras whose forms are borrowed from Nandi, Maasai, Swahili, and English, focusing on their etymology and resultant meanings. Specifically, the study examined how these toponyms are formed by tracing the etymology arising from language contact and analysing the context-specific meanings reflected in their borrowed forms. A descriptive research design was adopted within the framework of the Causal Theory of Names. The study comprised 42 purposively sampled Lukabaras speakers drawn from the seven county assembly wards of Kakamega North Sub-County. A total of 30 toponyms were collected through focus group discussions and analysed qualitatively using content analysis. The findings revealed that, regardless of the source language, the borrowed forms of toponyms were nativised to conform to the phonological structure of Lukabaras and that their meanings were strongly shaped by the sociohistorical contexts in which they emerged. Based on these findings, the study recommends further documentation and systematic analysis of toponyms in contact zones to preserve linguistic heritage and deepen understanding of the cultural processes embedded in place naming.
Copyright (c) 2025 Catherine Kasembeli, James Matseshe Sasala, Benard Mudogo https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
What do urban dwellers and people with dual residence do in rural areas of Tanzania?
This study intended to examine the activities of urban dwellers and individuals with dual residence when they return to rural villages. The theories underpinning this study are Everett Lee’s Theory of Migration, Duncan’s Theory on Population Mobility and the Push and Pull Theory of Migration. A cross-sectional research design was employed targeting smallholder farmers. Purposive sampling techniques were used to select the study area and key informants. The study involved 394 smallholder farmers systematically selected after establishing their sampling frame. Primary data were gathered from smallholder farmers and key informants through interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs), while secondary data were collected from library documents and websites. For the formal survey, primary data collection relied on structured interviews and FGDs. The collected primary data were analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics v.25. Descriptive statistics, including frequency distributions and percentages, were used to summarise the data. Qualitative data from FGDs were analysed thematically. The study found that urban dwellers and people with dual residence acquire large tracts of land for commercial farming when visiting rural areas. The emergence of tea estates, avocado orchards, and timber plantations in the Njombe and Iringa regions reflects significant investments by these groups. The study concludes that urban dwellers and people with dual residences primarily invest in commercial agriculture when returning to rural villages. Their presence brings both benefits and challenges to local smallholder farmers. The study recommends that stakeholders design and implement integrated rural development projects, recognising the interdependence of factors affecting rural communities, as urban dwellers and people with dual residence significantly drive agricultural transformation. This phenomenon should be encouraged, with appropriate regulations, to enhance employment opportunities and facilitate the transfer of new technologies. Given the positive contributions of these groups, policymakers should develop initiatives that leverage their expertise and experience to benefit rural areas.
Copyright (c) 2025 Mwabless Malila, Nsajigwa Mwalupani, Fredrick Mfinanga https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
A Stochastic Differential Equation Model for HIVAIDS Transmission Dynamics in Heterosexual Populations
This study presents a stochastic modeling framework to analyze HIV/AIDS transmission dynamics in heterosexual populations, incorporating environmental variability via stochastic perturbations. The population is divided into three compartments: susceptible S(t), infected I(t), and AIDS cases A(t). Mathematical validity is demonstrated through the analysis of positivity and boundedness of the model. Both the deterministic basic reproduction number R₀ and the stochastic reproduction number Rs₀ are derived, highlighting the significant influence of environmental noise on disease transmission. Stability analysis shows local asymptotic stability at the disease-free equilibrium when Rs₀ < 1, while an endemic equilibrium arises when Rs₀ > 1, exhibiting stochastic oscillations around deterministic predictions. The model extension to a Markov chain structure allows investigation of transition probabilities and stationary distributions under environmental variability. Multiple simulation realizations reveal considerable outcome variability despite identical parameters, underscoring the importance of stochastic effects in epidemic forecasting. This integrated modeling approach offers valuable insights for public health planning, especially in optimizing antiretroviral therapy resource allocation strategies.
Copyright (c) 2025 John Gregory Matekwa, Kennedy Nyongesa, Frankline Tireito https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Evaluating the role of organizational culture and management commitment in driving organizational transparency among Ghanaian SMEs
This paper sought to find out how Organizational Culture (OC) and Management Commitment (MC) influence Organizational Transparency (OT) among Small and Micro Enterprises [SMEs] in Ghana. Situated on organizational culture theory and transformational leadership theory, a cross-sectional design and a quantitative research approach were utilized for the study. The total target population comprised 488 registered SMEs with owners and top managers as key respondents. Out of a total of 421 SMEs approached, using convenience sampling, 354 valid responses were obtained. Also, data were collected using a structured questionnaire with standardized measurement scales scored on a five-point Likert scale. Data were analyzed through Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) version 4.1.0.7 with 5,000 bootstrap subsamples. The findings revealed that management commitment significantly influenced transparency, with both ethical leadership of top management and provision of resources leading to extremely high outcomes of transparency. The findings further showed that management commitment played a moderating role between culture and transparency by creating a synergistic effect whereby transparency was substantially amplified when both elements worked together. The study concludes that transparency is an internalized organizational value requiring simultaneous attention to both cultural development and leadership commitment. The study recommends that SME leaders deliberately nurture cultural values promoting openness and trust while demonstrating visible commitment through resource allocation and ethical behavior. Interventions should address cultural transformation and leadership commitment simultaneously, as neither dimension alone suffices for establishing sustained organizational transparency. This dual approach is essential for enhancing organizational governance and stakeholder trust in Ghanaian SMEs.
Copyright (c) 2025 Godfrey Adda, Baba Blonch Adombilla, Michael Yipake Banseh, Ebenezer Malcalm, Esther Asiedu, Mustapha Torobo Seidu https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Moderating role of organizational culture on reward strategies and employee performance in faith-based facilities in Kakamega County, Kenya
A reward system, which consists of financial and non-financial rewards, is very essential to organizations in managing employee loyalty and performance. Most firms struggle to determine the best compensation and reward systems for their staff. The main purpose of the study was to examine the effect of reward strategies and organizational culture on employee performance in Faith-Based Facilities (FBFs) in Kakamega County, Kenya. The study determined the moderating role of organizational culture on the relationship between reward strategies and employee performance in FBFs in Kakamega County. Reinforcement Theory, also known as Learning Theory, guided this study. The study was done in Kakamega County with 685 employees in 27 FBFs as the target population. An explanatory study design was adopted for in-depth analysis with a sample size of 246 employees chosen through stratified random sampling technique. A self-administered questionnaire was used whose content and construct validity were established through expert review, while reliability tests yielded Cronbach’s alpha coefficients between 0.783 and 0.916. Data analysis was done using SPSS version 24 to generate descriptive and inferential statistics. Analysis established that organizational culture had a significant moderating effect (R²=.267, F=26.853, p=.000). The coefficients from the moderated regression model revealed significant influence by the interaction terms on reward strategies: recognition (B=.035, p=.010), job security (B=.067, p=.000), and promotion (B= -.038, p=.019). The study concludes that the effectiveness of reward strategies in improving performance is enhanced when a supportive and collaborative organizational culture is in place. Faith-based facilities should continuously promote an organizational culture of employee involvement, communication, inclusivity, and representation to enhance positive staff attitude and behavior for optimal performance.
Copyright (c) 2025 Aroko Faith Adhiambo, Dishon Munuhe Wanjere, Rosemary Nanyama Mumaraki https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Hepatocellular injury and metabolic dysregulation of selected biomarkers in Human Immune Virus-1 - Hepatitis C Virus co-infected individuals using heroin in Mombasa County, Kenya
Hepatocellular injury and metabolic dysregulation are significant complications in individuals co-infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) and hepatitis C virus (HCV), particularly those who use injection heroin. However, this is less recognized. The combined effect of viral pathogenesis, drug intoxication, compromised bone mineralization, and systemic inflammation contributes to accelerated liver damage and metabolic abnormalities, including osteoporosis. But effective biomarker-based tools for early detection and monitoring remain limited. The current study aimed to characterize and quantify selected biomarkers of hepatocellular injury and metabolic dysregulation in HIV-1 and HCV co-infected injection heroin users, with the intent of developing a laboratory-based diagnostic and monitoring algorithm for early detection and disease progression assessment. This case-control retrospective study was conducted targeting injection heroin users stratified into HIV-1 and HCV co-infected, mono-infected, and uninfected groups. A total of 289 samples from persons aged between 18 and 65 years were analyzed for liver enzymes (alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and gamma-glutamyl transaminase (GGT)), albumin, metabolic indicators (high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), triglycerides, calcium, and vitamin D3), and virological parameters (HIV ribonucleic acid (HIV RNA), HCV ribonucleic acid (HCV RNA), and CD4 count). Statistical analyses included group comparisons and correlation modeling to evaluate biomarker association with disease severity. The co-infected group exhibited significantly elevated liver enzymes compared to mono-infected and uninfected participants (ALT P = 0.003; GGT P < 0.0001; ALP P < 0.0001) and significantly low albumin levels in co-infected group 2.7 (1.8-3.6). Although none of the correlations reached statistical significance (P>0.05), there were marked associations between GGT and viral load (positive), GGT and CD4+ (negative), and albumin and CD4+ (negative), and trends were consistent with expected directions of liver injury in HIV/HCV co-infection. The findings of this study demonstrate a clear pattern of progressive hepatocellular injury and dysfunction in relation to HIV-1 and HCV status among injection heroin users (IHUs). The pattern aligns with prior evidence that HIV accelerates HCV-induced liver damage, leading to faster progression to cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, and liver-related mortality; hence, the need to develop a biomarker-based diagnostic and monitoring algorithm to guide targeted clinical intervention. The findings of this study underscore the importance of integrated clinical care, such as antiretroviral therapy, nutritional support, and harm reduction measures, to mitigate liver injury and metabolic complications in this high-risk population. To improve on clinical management of this population, health systems should strengthen multidisciplinary care models combining hepatology, infectious disease, psychiatry, and addiction medicine for co-infected heroin users.
Copyright (c) 2025 Havila Oriedo Lukalo, Tom Were, Iddah Maulid Ali, Valentine Budambula, Brian Mutuma, Abel Onyango https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Effect of external public debt on unemployment in Kenya
Kenya continues to grapple with persistently high unemployment despite increased fiscal spending and public investments, primarily financed through external borrowing. Over the last three decades, external public debt has expanded significantly, yet its impact on labor market outcomes particularly unemployment remains questionable. This study investigates the effect of external public debt on unemployment in Kenya from 1994 to 2024. The study is grounded in key macroeconomic theories including the Keynesian theory of public expenditure, which advocates for increased government spending to stimulate employment; the Crowding-out theory, which warns of reduced private sector investment due to public borrowing and the Debt overhang theory, which suggests high external debt discourages private investment due to future tax burdens. Using a time series research design, secondary data were sourced from the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, Central Bank of Kenya, World Bank, and Macro trends. Econometric analysis was conducted using EViews version 16, applying unit root testing, ARDL bounds testing, and long-run coefficient estimation. The Augmented Dickey-Fuller test confirmed stationarity of variables at first difference. The ARDL bounds test revealed the existence of a long-run relationship (F-statistic = 5.87 > upper bound critical value at 1% = 5.06). Long-run coefficient estimates showed that external public debt had a significant positive impact on unemployment (β = 0.2946, p < 0.05), indicating that a 1% increase in external debt raises unemployment by 0.29%. The findings offer critical insights for policymakers on the importance of prudent debt management policies aimed at reducing unemployment and fostering sustainable development.
Copyright (c) 2025 Roselyne Mutoro Muturu, Dr. Edwin Simiyu, Dr. Consolata Ngala https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Effects of flat-rate versus volumetric pricing on per capita water usage in western Kenya
The design of water tariff structures is a critical policy tool for balancing cost recovery, equity, and demand management, especially in resource-constrained regions. In Western Kenya, utilities employ both flat-rate and volumetric pricing models, but their comparative effectiveness in influencing consumption behavior remains empirically underexplored. This study investigates the effects of flat-rate versus volumetric pricing on per capita water usage among households in Western Kenya. Utilizing a quantitative causal-comparative design, secondary panel data (2009–2024) from four county water utilities (Bungoma, Busia, Kakamega, Vihiga) were analyzed. Descriptive statistics summarized consumption trends and equity (Gini coefficient), while multiple regression analysis assessed the significance of each pricing model on water demand. Households under flat-rate pricing consumed significantly more water (Mean = 45.8 liters per capita per day, SD = 11.4) compared to those under volumetric pricing (Mean = 33.2 l/c/d, SD = 9.1). The Gini coefficient was higher under flat rates (0.54) than volumetric pricing (0.37), indicating greater consumption inequality. Regression analysis confirmed that volumetric pricing had a statistically significant effect on water consumption (β = 0.693, p = .016), whereas flat-rate pricing did not (β = 0.816, p = .054). A price structure change revealed that low-income flat-rate users increased consumption, while their volumetric counterparts reduced it. Volumetric pricing is a more effective mechanism for promoting water conservation and equitable use compared to flat-rate systems. Policy efforts should prioritize the phased expansion of metering infrastructure and the design of context-sensitive, pro-poor tariff structures that leverage the efficiency of volumetric pricing while safeguarding affordability through lifeline blocks.
Copyright (c) 2025 Isaac Wafula Simiyu, Consolata Ngala, Edwin Simiyu https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Serum creatinine and urea lack diagnostic accuracy for predicting malaria co-infection in HIV-positive children
Children under the age of five years in malaria-endemic regions of sub-Saharan Africa face a dual threat from Plasmodium falciparum malaria and HIV-1 infection. Both infections independently cause renal dysfunction, yet the diagnostic value of renal biomarkers in differentiating co-infected from mono-infected children remains uncertain. The objective of this study is to determine whether renal functional markers can predict malaria co-infection among HIV-positive children aged less than five years in Western Kenya. A cross-sectional case–control study involving 138 HIV-positive children (69 malaria-positive, 69 malaria-negative) attending Kakamega County Teaching and Referral Hospital was conducted. Malaria was confirmed by microscopy and rapid diagnostic tests. Serum creatinine and urea were quantified using an automated clinical chemistry analyzer. Parasitemia levels, age, and gender were compared between groups using the Mann-Whitney U and chi-square tests. Diagnostic performance of the renal functional markers was evaluated using ROC curve analysis. Children co-infected with malaria and HIV were younger (median 14.4 months in the co-infected vs. 24.0 months in the mono-infected group, p = 0.039). A higher proportion of co-infected children were female (64.2%) compared to the mono-infected group (35.8%, p=0.014). The median parasite density among co-infected children was 1,870 parasites/µL (range 1,806–80,025). Serum creatinine (93.0 µmol/L vs. 80.0 µmol/L, p = 0.001) and urea (4.9 mmol/L vs. 3.7 mmol/L, p < 0.0001) were significantly higher in the co-infected than mono-infected children. However, ROC analysis revealed poor discriminative ability (AUC < 0.70) for both markers. Despite elevated renal markers among co-infected children, creatinine and urea lack sufficient diagnostic accuracy to predict malaria co-infection in HIV-positive pediatric populations. Integrating parasitological testing with routine renal monitoring remains essential for accurate case management in co-endemic regions.
Copyright (c) 2025 Mambo Fidelis Arambe, Tom Were, Nathan Shaviya, Emily Atieno, Paul Mutevi Wanjala, Moses Mwajar Ngeiywa https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Navigating the nexus: Unraveling the impact of economic, social, and financial globalization on the economic growth of Nepal
This study aims to examine the impact of economic, social, and financial globalization on Nepal's economic growth. It draws on the concepts of the neoclassical, Heckscher-Ohlin, and dependency theories, which use a methodological approach to the relationship between economic expansion and globalization. This study is based on secondary data collected from various World Bank reports. It includes 53 years of yearly data from Nepal, spanning from 1970 to 2022. It follows the analytical research design, positivist research philosophy, and deductive reasoning. The non-linear autoregressive distributive lag (NARDL) model is used to explore the impact and cointegration between response and predictor variables. There is long-run asymmetric cointegration between social, economic, and financial globalization and economic growth in Nepal. The R-squared value of 0.867 (86.7%) from the short-run error correction model indicates that the variation in economic growth is explained by social, economic, and financial globalization. Similarly, the NARDL's R-squared value of 0.659 (65.9%) reveals that social, economic, and financial globalization explains the variation in growth. Globalization has a powerful but asymmetric impact on economic growth. Policymakers could strategically pursue policies that maximize growth from increased global integration while simultaneously developing robust domestic safeguards to insulate the economy from the distinct shocks of global financial instability.
Copyright (c) 2025 Prem Bahadur Budhathoki, Arjun Kumar Dahal, Shiva Raj Ghimire https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The role of work shifts on employee job satisfaction within the Tanzania police force: The case of Njombe region police force
Work shift is one of the factors that influence job satisfaction, especially for jobs that require 24-hour service for seven days, such as those in healthcare and law enforcement. In various parts of the world, police officers are required to have work shifts because their services are needed 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. This study explores the effect of work shift patterns on job satisfaction among police officers in the Njombe Region, Tanzania, focusing on the patterns and types of shifts. The study was grounded in insights from circadian rhythm theory, motivation theory, and the hierarchy of needs, which aim to explain factors influencing motivation and job satisfaction in relation to shift schedules. Out of 384 police officers in Njombe, the researchers randomly selected 169 respondents for this study using Yamane’s formula. Data were collected from 169 respondents using structured questionnaires and analysed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, and regression. Findings confirm that fixed shifts and morning shifts are more preferable and have a significant impact on increasing job satisfaction compared to rotating and frequent night shifts. Therefore, a work shift is a strong predictor of job satisfaction. The value of p of the fixed shift was significant, and the regression coefficient of fixed shift was +0.36, while that of rotating was -0.27, validating the argument that fixed shift has a positive effect, while poorly managed rotating shift has a negative impact on job satisfaction among police officers. Moreover, the regression output shows that shift pattern is a strong determinant of job satisfaction among police officers, fixed shift pattern improves satisfaction (B=0.65, p<0.001); however, frequent night shift affects satisfaction negatively (B=-0.270, p<0.001). The impact of age and years of service has a significant positive effect, as p>0.05 exhibits a positive, statistically insignificant effect. Also, based on T-test results, there was a high level of satisfaction among officers on the fixed shift (p < 0.001) and the morning shift. These findings emphasize the vital significance of scheduling practices in improving workforce well-being and reducing dissatisfaction associated with night work. The study recommends that there is a need for shift policy reform that takes into account fixed scheduling, reduces the frequency of night duty, and ensures that fitness and creativity programs are incorporated into the policy to maintain higher energy levels. Based on the results, the study concluded that stable and predictable work schedules promote psychological well-being, efficiency, and effectiveness in operations, increase employee satisfaction, and reduce absenteeism and employee turnover. Findings serve as a basis for critical evidence in promoting workforce management within the Tanzanian police force. By aligning officers' demands with best practices in human resources, it is straightforward to enhance service delivery, performance, and the well-being of officers. Therefore, it is paramount for governments and administrators to ensure that work schedules are effectively managed, allowing police officers to perform their critical duty of protecting the community and its assets, as well as providing public safety.
Factors that influence agricultural technology adoption among commercial vegetable growers in Arusha District, Tanzania
Vegetable farming is an alternative source of livelihood and an important agricultural practice for income generation and employment opportunities. Currently, agricultural technologies are promoted among commercial vegetable growers to improve their livelihood. However, in many cases, the commercial vegetable farmers’ adoption rate of modern technologies is low. There is limited understanding of the technology’s adoption and the determinants of insights. This paper aims to assess the factors affecting technology adoption among commercial vegetable growers in three wards of the Arusha District, Tanzania. It targeted vegetable growers in the study area. This study adopted a cross-sectional design and quantitative approach guided by the theory of diffusion of innovation. The multi-stage sampling method was used to select a sample of 150 households. Data were gathered by a questionnaire applied in a survey method. The study used descriptive statistics to analyse the factors affecting agricultural technology adoption in the study area. Findings indicated that the farmers’ education, household income, farm size, access to extension services, and access to credit influence the adoption. These factors are fundamentally enclosed within the vicious cycle of poverty that limits growers from adopting innovative and adaptive strategies of effective agricultural technologies in the study area. It was concluded that agricultural adoption among vegetable commercial growers is determined by education, household income, farm size, access to extension services, and credit facilities in the study area. Hence, there is a need for purposive interventions to address these factors among agricultural and business actors.
Copyright (c) 2025 Mary Daniel Minja, Dr. George Julius Babune https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
A framework of requirements for improving digitalization of human population dynamics tracking in Tanzania
Tracking of human population dynamics in Tanzania is still elusive and hard to support the decision makers in making informed decision. Accurate and on time information on human population dynamics would result into effective resources planning and allocation, public services planning and allocation, environmental impact assessment and social economic development. Ineffective population dynamics tracking has been due to lack of unified requirements for tracking human population dynamics. This study establishes he unified requirements framework for digitalizing the tracking of human population dynamics in Tanzania. This study was done in Dodoma Region in Dodoma LGA and Mpwapwa LGA using a cross sectional study design. Both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and analysis were engaged. The total of 187 respondents was involved in this study. For qualitative methods key informants’ interviews and document/system reviews were used, while structured questionnaires were carried out for quantitative methods. Sampling of respondents was done using stratified random sampling. The research results show 51.1% male and 48.9% female participants; dominant education of respondents was bachelor degree who were 26.8%. The dominant age of respondents was between 30–40 years (44.4%). The objective of study is designing the requirements for population tracking by testing 20 hypotheses derived from five key information domains: birth, death, immigration, emigration, and total population dynamics. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) yielded strong model fit indicators (CFI = 0.971, RMSEA = 0.038), with 18 of the 20 hypotheses accepted, validating the majority of requirement constructs. According to this study, the tracking of population dynamics in Tanzania is greatly influenced by requirements from birth, immigration, mortality, emigration, and overall real-time population dynamics data. The Framework shown in Table 6 provides a detailed description of the particular needs from each area. The results of this research help policymakers to put in place information and communication technology policies to explicitly state the adoption and deployment of digital systems as an innovative way for tracking human population dynamics by utilizing the framework of requirements established in this study. For successful, efficient, and long-lasting tracking of human population dynamics, the stakeholders should especially adopt and put into practice the requirements framework, which captures many perspectives of human population dynamics.
Copyright (c) 2025 Juvenalis Mwombeki, Patrick D. Kihoza, Morice Daudi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Foreign direct investment and its role in alleviating poverty: A Tanzanian perspective
The impact of Foreign Direct Investment [FDI] and major macroeconomic variables such as government spending, unemployment, inflation, and exchange rate on poverty in Tanzania over the period 1993-2023 is investigated in this study. It is based on three structural theories: Production Cycle, where FDI grows with the life cycle of products, leading to technological development and product development, and results in poverty eradication via employment and market expansion; Internalisation, in which multi-national corporations internalise the market to reduce transaction costs which leads to technology transfer and increases efficiency and poverty reduction; and Vernon’s Production Cycle and Market Imperfection Theories, where firm-specific advantages in imperfect markets cause FDI to increase competition and employment and help to reduce poverty. The data used in this study were extracted from reliable sources, including the World Bank and the Tanzania National Bureau of Statistics, and they cover annual time series. The explanatory variables examined consist of poverty headcount ratio, FDI inflows, government spending, unemployment rate, CPI, and real exchange rate. The inclusion criteria provided reliable, consistent data over 30 years, while the exclusion criteria removed incomplete data sets, which could have been affected by differences in methodology. The ARDL model was employed to generate short-run and long-run relationship and dynamic analysis, which was validated in the model through the robust diagnostic tests such as CUSSUM test for stability, Breusch-pagan test for heteroskedasticity, and Breusch Godfrey statistic for autocorrelation. The results show that FDI has significant effects on reducing poverty in the short and long run. One percent increase in FDI is negatively and significantly related to poverty in the long run, with an impact of 0.437 per cent and a short-run impact of 0.034 per cent, suggesting that FDI promotes job creation, technology diffusion, and economic activities, particularly in agriculture. Inflation, on the other hand, has a twofold effect, increasing poverty in the long run as a result of weakening purchasing power (a 1% increase in inflation is associated with a 0.437% increase in poverty). Ironically, in the short term, inflation leads to a slight reduction in poverty, perhaps due to temporary gains in wages and specific sector dynamics. Government spending is not an effective tool for addressing poverty. The long-term impacts are weakly positive (coefficient=0.152) and the short-term are slightly negative (-0.087), which means that long-run efficiencies are questioned regarding the assignment of resources to education and health, which are more directly associated with poverty. Unemployment has a strange relationship with poverty, decreasing in significance in the long run (although it is still significant with a negative effect of -0.193), perhaps indicating difficulty in measuring the large unregistered labour market in Tanzania and its immediate impact is -0.045. Poverty is relatively insensitive to exchange rate adjustments, showing a long-run impact of -0.098, which is a small number. This marginal effectiveness might reflect the counteracting influences of export-led growth and more expensive imports. The study also reveals the persistent structural presence of poverty (long-term and short-term lagged poverty rates -0.612, and 0.387 as the coefficients) which provides evidence of deep-rooted economic poverty alleviation downward pressures. Policy implications include investing in human capital and increasing Tanzania’s absorptive capacity for FDI by enhancing institutions and strengthening labour-intensive (e.g. agriculture, manufacturing, and textiles) sectors, managing monetary policy to reduce negative inflation, and enhancing the targeting and efficiency of public spending on social infrastructure, healthcare, and education.
Copyright (c) 2025 Nicodemas Lema, Baraka Lameck Ntyamilyango https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Beyond the bank: Income irregularity and women’s preference for village community banking—the mediating role of perceived flexibility
Women in Tanzania's informal economy continue to be excluded from the formal financial sector due to a number of factors, primarily income irregularity and the inflexibility of formal financial structures. This paper explores the influence of women's income irregularities on their preference for informal financial institutions like Village Community Banks (VICOBA) and whether perceived financial product flexibility mediates this relationship. The study is based on institutional theory and is concerned with alignment between institutional design and user behaviour. A quantitative cross-sectional study design was used, which included a sample of 403 women aged 20-55 years in Tanzania from three regions: Dodoma, Mwanza, and Mbeya. Study participants were selected by multistage sampling to ensure representation across a wide range of informal economic activities, including farming, trading, and micro-entrepreneurship. Data were collected using structured questionnaires, which included three general constructs: income irregularity, perceived flexibility and preference for VICOBA over formal (formal credit) finance. SmartPLS 4.0 software was used for the analysis of Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM). Analysis showed that all hypothesised relationships were statistically significant. Irregularity of income was found to be an important factor influencing women's preference for VICOBA and also determined perceptions of perceived flexibility. Perceived flexibility added another positive contribution to the preference for VICOBA. Mediational analysis supported the partial mediation of perceived flexibility in the relationship between income irregularity and preference for VICOBA, supporting complementary partial mediation. The results emphasise the role of institutional design, and especially flexibility, for the financial behaviour of women with irregular incomes. VICOBA emerges as a rational institutional choice based on the structural and cognitive needs of women in the informal economy. To better serve the financial needs of women, formal financial institutions need to reconceptualise products to reflect income irregularity and incorporate elements of flexibility. Bringing VICOBA and other women's financial institutions into the financial mainstream as legitimate business enterprises would help bridge the gap between formal finance and the economic realities of rural women.
Copyright (c) 2025 Hamza Hussein Malombe https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Prospects and sustainability of the self-help groups in the context of rural households’ economic well-being in Karatu District, Tanzania
The microfinance services in the form of self-help groups (SHGs) have recently widens the financial services in rural areas in the developing countries. Despite self-help group’s prominence, there is limited evidence from Tanzania of both their effects on household well-being and the sustainability of such groups in rural areas. The objective of this study was to examine the prospects and sustainability of SHGs in improving economic well-being of rural households. The Collective Action Theory guided the study. Mixed methods cross-sectional design was applied in this study to obtain deep insights issues under the study concerning self-help groups. The targeted population in which the sample was drawn was rural household members. Purposeful sampling was used to select the respondents for interviews and focus group discussion, including members of self-help groups and key informants. Also, snowball sampling was used to select non-members of self-help groups for interview. The total of 44 respondents interviewed, which included household members who were members of SHGs, non- members of SHGs, and key informants. Content analysis was used to analyse the data collected. The findings revealed that there is a prospect of self-help groups to improve the economic well-being of rural households, as majority of the respondents gave positive responses concerning assets, increased income among other benefits which has contribution on improving the living standards of the rural households. However, there are issues need to be considered as are likely to affect the sustainability of self-help groups, such as financial literacy and entrepreneurship knowledge and skills. Therefore, it is recommended that policy makers, non-government organisations and other agencies should involve in promoting self-help groups, build capacity for these groups, and provide financial literacy as well as entrepreneur knowledge and skills in rural areas.
Copyright (c) 2025 Isaac Sawaya Mawalla https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Third space and integrity of reconciliation in Han Kang’s human acts
Han Kang’s Human Acts (2014) explores the clouded boundaries between life and death, authority and rebellion, and presence and absence. This study examines how characters like Dong-ho and Jeong-dae embody the tension between legitimate and illegitimate power, reflecting on how these blurred lines affect individual identity and collective resistance. Using a qualitative textual analysis grounded in Gloria Anzaldúa’s Borderlands Theory and Homi K. Bhabha’s concept of liminal space, the research argues that conflict resolution lies in recognizing the "in-between"—a "transitional space where binaries collapse and transformation occurs. The study portrays how the merging of symbolic and physical spaces and the blurring of power structures reveal a third space where social rupture can be understood and healed. Ultimately, the study underscores how identifying this liminal zone helps dismantle rigid hierarchies and opens possibilities for collective renewal and emotional catharsis. Posthumous narration blurs the line between life and death, the transformation of the soul obliterates physical and symbolic space, and a role reversal blurs the authoritative and unauthoritative power. Recognition of the liminal space, in other words, the third space, minimizes territorial conflict, maximizes the financial and power-related boundaries that, in turn, synchronize national and international relations among people.
Copyright (c) 2025 Bishnu Prasad Pokharel, Sultana Banu https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Challenges in developing Information and Communication Technology (ICT) curricula for instruction and learning: An analysis of Kibaha District, Tanzania
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has become a key driver of educational change throughout the world, enriching teaching and learning as well as facilitating administration processes. ICT not only updates the delivery of education, but also fosters digital literacy and skills that have become indispensable for successful learning in 21st-century employment and citizenship. Despite the various initiatives by Tanzanian government and development partners on mainstreaming Information Communication Technology (ICT) in schools, successful adoption of ICT curriculum at secondary education level is still a great challenge particularly to rural areas like Kibaha district. As such, this study aims at exploring the particular challenges for ICT curriculum implementation in Kibaha District to generate suggestions that can inform both local and national policy and practice. Guided by the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), this study assessed the challenges of ICT integration in secondary schools. The paper relied on descriptive survey. The study population included heads of school, teachers (ICT as well as other subject teachers), and students drawn from three public secondary schools in Kibaha District, Tanzania; purposefully selected. A sample size of 113 was taken from this population, which included: 3 heads of school, 15 teachers and 95 students. Students were selected using stratified sampling and the headmasters and teachers were selected using purposive sampling. Data were collected through structured questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, and observations. Qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis, while quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistical methods. Findings revealed unstable electricity supply, poor ICT resources, insufficient in-service training, and poor timetable integration. The study recommends strong government support, ICT training for teachers, curriculum revision, and robust public-private partnerships to enhance ICT integration in schools.
Copyright (c) 2025 Jacquiline M. Ndanu https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Tracking biomarkers of iron dysregulation across HIV treatment spectrum: Insights from erythroferrone, hepcidin and hephaestin levels in Western Kenya
Anaemia is a frequent comorbidity in HIV infection, driven in part by disruptions in iron regulation. While the role of hepcidin is well documented, the contributions of erythroferrone and hephaestin remain underexplored, especially in African cohorts. This study investigated the differential expression of these biomarkers across defined sub-categories of antiretroviral therapy (ART) exposure and adherence in Western Kenya with an aim to elucidate their contributions to iron deficiency anaemia (IDA) in HIV-infected individuals. A cross-sectional study was conducted at Busia County Referral Hospital among 163 adults comprising HIV infected ART-adherent (n = 47), ART-naive (n = 23), non-adherent (n = 42), and healthy control (n = 51) study groups. Serum levels of erythroferrone, hepcidin, and hephaestin were quantified using ELISA. Iron status and haemoglobin were assessed using standard hematologic and biochemical methods. Logistic regression models were used to evaluate associations between biomarker levels, ART status, and IDA risk. ART non-adherence and ART-naivety were associated with significantly higher prevalence of IDA (65.4% and 50.0%, respectively) compared to ART adherence (17.6%, P = 0.009). Erythroferrone levels were significantly suppressed in ART-naive and non-adherent individuals (median: 21.7 and 31.2 ng/mL, respectively) compared to adherent and healthy controls (38.1 and 50.2 ng/mL, P < 0.0001). Elevated hepcidin levels were observed in ART-naive and non-adherent participants (113.0 and 84.1 ng/mL, respectively), aligning with functional iron deficiency. Hephaestin levels were markedly reduced in untreated and non-adherent groups, implicating impaired iron absorption. Binary logistic regression confirmed ART non-adherence (AOR = 9.97, 95% CI: 2.66–37.41), low erythroferrone (AOR = 0.094, 95% CI: 0.01–0.72), elevated hepcidin (AOR = 3.36, 95% CI: 1.36–8.25), and reduced hephaestin (AOR = 1.137 per µg/L decrease, 95% CI: 1.07–1.20) as independent predictors of IDA. ART status exerts a profound influence on iron homeostasis in PLWHIV through modulation of key regulatory proteins. Suppression of erythroferrone, elevation of hepcidin, and depletion of hephaestin underlie a triad of dysregulation that drives iron-restricted erythropoiesis. These findings call for integrative diagnostic frameworks that include iron biomarkers beyond ferritin, and underscore the urgent need to address ART non-adherence as a modifiable determinant of haematologic health in HIV.
Copyright (c) 2025 Collins Abonyo, Nathan Kiboi, Dr. Nathan Shaviya https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Determination of fixed carbon of blended briquettes of sawdust, maize stalks and coffee husks a case study of tea industry in Kericho County, Kenya
The tea industry in Kericho is among the main consumers of firewood for its intensive thermal energy demand used in industrial steam boilers. There have been growing concerns about firewood depletion and tea factories have begun transitioning to alternative fuels to power their boilers. Briquettes made of biomass residues are among the promising solutions; however, they are not yet widely adopted and implemented. This study has identified the possible source of briquettes to fire boilers that will utilize agricultural by-products produced within Kericho. The blended briquettes have arrived at the best ratio by determining the physical and combustion properties of blended briquettes of sawdust, maize stalks, and coffee husks. Blended briquettes have gained attention as a sustainable alternative to traditional fuels due to their potential for reducing environmental impact utilizing agricultural and forestry residues and reducing the dependency of wood pellets. The combustion properties of the blended briquettes have also been examined, focusing on fixed carbon. The calorific value will be determined using calorimetric techniques to measure the amount of heat energy released upon combustion. The ideal combustion parameters of blended briquettes were determined via numerical optimisation. Design-Expert® Software's optimization method is based on a technique created by Derringer and Suich (1980). Experiment design and analysis were done with Design-Expert® Software Version 10-Stat-Ease. The response surface methodology was utilized to investigate the fixed carbons blended briquettes manufactured from coffee husks, maize stalks, and sawdust. The interaction of the parameters was also explored. The results of this study have blended briquettes developed from coffee husks, maize stalks, and sawdust, measuring 45mm by 45mm by 35mm. From the analysis of individual briquettes, Individual briquettes fixed carbons range between 8.58% and 13.08%. Sawdust gave 9.36%, coffee husks 8.58% and maize stalks at 13.08%. The quality of bio-briquettes improves as the fixed carbon value rises. Fixed carbon serves as a primary source of heat during combustion. The optimal mix ratio of coffee husks: maize stalks: sawdust is 2.3:1.1:1. This ratio gave a 6.986% fixed carbon. This has verified that blended briquette fuel has better combustion properties than individual briquettes. It is recommended that further research should be done to investigate the influence combustion properties and binders for uncarbonized briquette binders when varied above 10%. This should be adjusted to see if it impacts both the physical and combustion properties under investigation.
Copyright (c) 2025 Benard C. Ronoh, Peter T. Cherop, Barasa H. Masinde https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
In vitro antioxidant activity of haloalkaliphilic fungal extracts from lake Magadi, Kenya
The wide-ranging saline-alkaline ecological setting is steadily acquiring appreciation as a rich source harbouring a repertoire of extremophilic fungal diversity exerting exclusive biological activities ranging from anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, analgesic among other varied medicinal capacities. However, studies characterizing biochemical functionalities from structurally unique haloalkaliphilic fungal biota remain scanty and undocumented. Importantly, saline emitting hot-springs situated in Rift valley soda lakes are gaining recognition as natural reservoirs with enormous fungal microbial community bearing potential for antioxidation capacity. Therefore, we conducted a cross-sectional laboratory based experimental study through random sampling aimed at characterizing in vitro antioxidant activity from haloalkaliphilic fungal strains of Lake Magadi in Kenya. Sample types comprising wet sediments, soils and surface water were cultured in sabouraud’s dextrose agar (SDA), potato dextrose agar (PDA) and malt extract agar (MEA) plates at temperatures of 250c and 410c respectively, for 1-3 weeks. Resulting pure isolates underwent molecular identification. PCR proceeded using ITS-1 & 4 universal primers followed by Sanger sequencing. NCBI’s nBLAST supported molecular identification with ≥90% identity cut-off values. Fermentation and extracts production progressed for 28 days at 250c accompanied by lyophilisation. Yielded freeze-dried extracts were profiled for antioxidant activity through hydroxyl, superoxide, DPPH, hydrogen peroxide, FRAP and lipid peroxidation inhibition assays. Extracts’ total phenolics and flavonoids content were also estimated. IC50 was tabulated based on dose-response curves against standards through linear regression. One-way ANOVA compared means across treatments and Tukey’s post hoc used for pairwise group comparisons. Statistical significance was considered at P≤0.05. Genera Cladosporium exhibited dominance (n=4) among sampled fungal biota. Samples P1, P6, P9 and P5 extracts exhibited maximal scavenging activity at higher concentrations against hydroxyl (76.53% ± 1.27), superoxide (78.90% ± 1.29), H202 (76.19% ± 0.40) and DPPH (80.19% ± 0.94) radicals, respectively. Ferric reductive (0.583 ± 0.005) and lipid peroxidation inhibitive (80.95% ± 1.07) activities for isolate P5 was statistically higher relative to other profiled extracts. Radical scavenging capacity of respective antioxidant standards was substantially higher against assayed extracts. Profound IC50 scavenging effect occurred at extract concentrations between 2.5 - 3.5 mg/ml. P7 extracts revealed peak total phenolic content of 3.61 ± 0.05 mg gallic acid equivalents/mg crude extract at 4mg/ml, while P6 expressed comparable total flavonoid content of 3.32 ± 0.04 mg quercetin equivalents/mg crude extract. Overally, fungi extracts showcased free radicals scavenging ability against reactive species in assorted antioxidant assays. Besides safety profile validation, our extracts demonstrate applicability for antioxidative potential that may further be discerned via comparative in vivo and ex vivo murine experimentation models.
Copyright (c) 2025 Nathan Kiboi, Collins Abonyo, Nahashon Ouko, James Kimani, Mathew Piero Ngugi, Domnic Marera, Tom Were https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Analysis of odor nuisance emitted by Naivasha abattoir, Kenya
Numerous unfit for human consumption animal byproducts are produced as a result of the ever-increasing demand for livestock production for food. As a result, the number of rendering plants that help turn animal waste into fat and protein flour is on the rise. Odors emitted from rendering processes can significantly impact air quality, causing nuisance for humans, especially when the plant is close to residential areas. The concentration of odor emission from thermal rendering operations, as determined by dynamic olfactometry, and the removal efficiency of the plant's three-stage water scrubber are the primary topics of this study. Due to their high odorant concentrations, three of the six process air stream emitters studied contributed the most to the odor. The elimination of odor nuisance by a 3-stage water scrubber revealed a removal efficiency of < 94%. This result suggested synergy between olfactory and sensorial methods of odour assessment and must be used to achieve satisfactory results.
Copyright (c) 2025 Philip Kiama Mbugua https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Assessing the impact of government initiatives on small-scale investors' participation in mutual funds in Dar es Salaam-Tanzania: A case of Unit Trust of Tanzania
This study assesses the impact of government initiatives on small-scale investors' participation in mutual funds in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The main objectives were to analyse the effect of government financial literacy on investment behaviour, evaluate the influence of regulatory reforms, and assess the role of financial incentives in increasing participation in mutual funds. This study was anchored by diffusion of innovation theory and behaviour-funded theory. A mixed-methods approach was employed, collecting data from 399 small-scale investors and 10 key informants through structured questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. The study used descriptive analysis and thematic analysis to analyse the study objectives. The study finds that financial literacy programmes significantly enhance small-scale investors' understanding of investment concepts, with 45.4% of respondents agreeing that they have a good understanding of financial concepts like interest rates and inflation (mean score = 4.07). Furthermore, 43.9% strongly agreed that these programmes boosted their confidence in making investment decisions (mean score = 3.59). Regarding regulatory reforms, 43.9% of respondents were aware of recent regulatory changes, and 45.4% stated that these reforms positively influenced their investment decisions (mean score = 4.07). A mean score of 4.07 indicates that 38.3 per cent of investors strongly agree that they will adhere to the new limits. This indicates that the adjustments also improved investor compliance. Following participation in incentive programmes, 38.3 per cent of respondents reported that they were more likely to invest in mutual funds (mean score = 3.91), indicating that financial incentives had a significant role in the decision-making process. In spite of these positive results, the research reveals that there are ongoing obstacles, such as restricted access to information and a reluctance to engage in investments that involve a higher degree of risk. According to the findings, in order to boost the level of small-scale investor participation and financial inclusion in Tanzania, the government and non-government organisations should ensure targeted government policies, improved financial literacy, and more easily accessible financial incentives for the investors.
Copyright (c) 2025 Cosmas Simon Mbogela, Isakwisa T. Anyosisye https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Challenges in implementing the unified electronic payment System: A case of management in Tanzanian public universities
This study examines the challenges of implementing the Unified Electronic Payment System (MUSE) and the management that affects its successful implementation in Tanzanian public universities. The study employed the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) and Institutional Theory, an uncommon methodology in existing literature, to analyse the impact of technical, operational, and user-related challenges on the implementation of the MUSE system. A mixed-methods design was employed. Quantitative data were collected via a structured questionnaire from 75 MUSE users across four public universities. Qualitative data were garnered through eight semi-structured interviews with heads of accounting and Information and Communication Technology [ICT] departments. Quantitative data was analysed using SPSS (v27), employing descriptive statistics and multiple linear regression. Qualitative data was analysed thematically using ATLAS.ti (v24). Regression analysis demonstrated that technical challenges constituted the main barrier to the efficacy of MUSE implementation, explaining 93.1% of the variance (F(3, 71) = 317.506, p < .001), with critical issues including system integration failures, inadequate ICT infrastructure, cybersecurity vulnerabilities, and unreliable performance during peak usage. Technical challenges emerged as the predominant predictor (β = 0.537, p < .001). Operational problems, including policy ambiguities, insufficient training, and lack of managerial support, significantly affected system performance (β = 0.339, p < .001), suggesting that management and process issues can impede effectiveness. In contrast, user-related difficulties, such as resistance to change and insufficient digital literacy, demonstrated a negligible and statistically insignificant effect (β = 0.153, p = .061). The model exhibited significant explanatory power, underscoring the necessity of tackling both technical and operational challenges to enhance MUSE’s efficacy. Structural and institutional variables appear to represent the principal impediments, suggesting that proactive measures in these areas are crucial for the success of the system. Qualitative findings contextualise these results, highlighting infrastructural deficits, misaligned workflows, and a lack of sustained technical support. The study concludes that effective digital transformation in higher education requires a paradigm shift from focusing predominantly on user acceptance to addressing deep-seated systemic and institutional weaknesses. Policymakers and university administrators must prioritise investments in strong ICT infrastructure, develop university-specific implementation frameworks, and institute continuous capacity-building programmes. This research addresses a critical gap in the literature by focusing exclusively on the under-explored context of MUSE implementation in Tanzanian higher education. The integration of the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) with institutional theory provides a novel, holistic analytical framework for understanding the complex interplay between technology, individuals, and organisational structures in public sector digitalisation.
Copyright (c) 2025 Karim Kilonzo, Cosmas Mbogela https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The triple nexus: How foreign direct investment [FDI] and inflation jointly shape Nepal’s gross domestic product [GDP] growth
This study investigates the dynamic relationship among foreign direct investment (FDI), inflation, and gross domestic product (GDP) growth in Nepal from 1990 to 2023, focusing on how FDI and inflation jointly affect economic growth. Classical and neoclassical growth models form the theoretical basis for analyzing the interaction between FDI, inflation, and GDP growth. The study analyzes yearly information and fills in missing FDI data from 1992 to 1995 with strong estimation techniques, choosing autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) for its precision. A vector autoregression (VAR) model is used to examine cause-and-effect relationships, along with additional descriptive and diagnostic analyses to confirm the results are trustworthy. The findings indicate that GDP growth Granger-causes FDI inflows, while FDI does not Granger-cause GDP growth. This suggests that economic growth is more crucial for attracting FDI than the reverse, highlighting structural impediments in Nepal's economy that need to be addressed to fully integrate FDI into the economy. However, it is clear that what is required for Nepal to fully exploit the potential benefits of FDI for development is to take a clearly articulated "growth-led" strategy with targeted efforts towards attaining macroeconomic stability and an attractive investment climate. Specifically, we provide suggestions for attaining stable economic growth, addressing structural impediments related to sectoral diversity and regulatory ineffectiveness, and containing stable inflation to create an environment conducive to foreign investment. The challenge that remains to be addressed by Nepal's leaders, therefore, is one of growth, creating sustainable positive stimulus for a long-term pathway of foreign investment and subsequent economic development.
Copyright (c) 2025 Yadav Mani Upadhyaya, Ramesh Bahadur Khadka https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Prevalence of thyroid dysfunction among HIV-positive pregnant women attending antenatal care at Kakamega county general referral hospital, Kenya
Thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy increases risks for both mothers and infants, with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection further complicating thyroid physiology through immune and metabolic changes. Despite the high HIV burden in sub-Saharan Africa, few studies address thyroid dysfunction among HIV-positive pregnant women. This study assessed the prevalence of thyroid dysfunction among HIV-positive pregnant women in Kakamega County, Kenya. A facility-based cross-sectional study was conducted at Kakamega County General Referral Hospital (KCGRH). Sixty-seven women (HIV-positive and HIV-negative pregnant women and non-pregnant controls) were enrolled. Serum thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), free triiodothyronine (fT3), and free thyroxine (fT4) were measured using ELISA. Data analysis employed descriptive statistics, Mann–Whitney U, Kruskal–Wallis, and Spearman correlation tests in SPSS v26. Ethical approval and informed consent were obtained from HIV-positive pregnant women, among whom 50.0% exhibited thyroid dysfunction, all presenting with hyperthyroidism. HIV-negative pregnant women had a higher prevalence (72.7%), comprising hyperthyroidism (63.6%), hypothyroidism (9.1%), and euthyroidism (13.6%). HIV-positive women had significantly elevated systolic blood pressure (p=0.044). Thyroid dysfunction, predominantly hyperthyroidism, is common among HIV-positive pregnant women in Kakamega. The integration of thyroid screening into ANC and HIV programs is recommended.
Copyright (c) 2025 Jacqueline Mukhaye Amira, Tom Were, George Sowayi, Eliphalet Otunga, Kevin Soita https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The effects of agroforestry on farm productivity of smallholder farmers in Karatu District, Tanzania
Smallholder farmers are among the most disadvantaged and vulnerable classes in the developing countries and are facing a problem of persistent low crop productivity. Agroforestry is seen by many as a response to environmental problems and as a sustainable endeavour which is specifically suited to farmers with poor resources. However, the multiple roles that trees can play, in most cases at a landscape scale, are less studied and usually do not persuade the farmers to adopt agroforestry. Furthermore, there is doubt of agroforestry systems on their productivity and economic benefits. The objective of this study was to examine the effects of agroforestry on farm productivity of smallholder farmers. Diffusion of Innovations theory by E.M. Rogers framed the concept of this study. The mixed-methods cross-sectional design was applied in this study to obtain deep insights into the farm productivity of the smallholder farmers practising agroforestry. The targeted population was smallholder farmers. Snowball sampling was also used to select households practising agroforestry for interview. Also, key informants were selected purposely based on information sought. The total of 59 respondents interviewed included smallholder farmers who practised agroforestry and key informants. Content analysis was used to analyse data for open-ended questions. The findings showed that agroforestry has the potential to foster farm productivity of smallholder farmers. However, most of the respondents have not taken full advantage of agroforestry. Therefore, it is recommended to promote and integrate tree species that replenish soil fertility as well as fruit trees in the farms in order for farmers to realise the productivity potential of agroforestry.
Factors influencing self-sufficiency of microfinance institutions in Kinondoni and Temeke municipalities, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Microfinance institutions (MFIs) are considered important in that they offer small-scale loans to poor, low-income people and communities who are considered unbankable. The study was conducted to examine factors influencing self-sufficiency of microfinance institutions in Tanzania. The study was guided by profit incentive theory. The research design that was adopted in this study was a cross-sectional design. The simple random sampling technique was used in selecting microfinance institutions at Kinondoni and Temeke municipal councils. A quantitative research approach was preferred in the current study. This study used a total of 327 registered microfinance institutions as the population of this study. Thus, a sample size of 10 microfinance institutions was used, and secondary data was extracted from annual reports that span from 2015 to 2024. Penal regression analysis was used in analyzing quantitative data collected. The findings revealed that there was a positive and significant relationship between the number of borrowers and the self-sufficiency of MFIs. Firstly, the findings revealed that there was a positive and significant relationship between the amount of loan and the self-sufficiency of MFIs. Secondly, the findings revealed that there was a significant relationship between revenue diversification and self-sufficiency of MFIs. Finally, the findings revealed that there was a positive and significant relationship between the size of microfinance and the self-sufficiency of MFIs. The study concluded that factors that influence self-sufficiency of MFIs include average loan size, firm size, number of active borrowers, and revenue diversification. The study recommended that managers of MFIs should increase the size of loans, the geographical area covered, the retention of active borrowers, and engage in revenue diversification.
Copyright (c) 2025 Regula Mcharo, Cosmas Mbogela https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0